Are you ready to get hands-on with Linux? This guide
walks you through essential basic commands,
each with practical examples. Whether
you're managing files or checking system info, these examples will help you to become
confident on the Linux terminal.
We are covering the following commands in this post.
1. ls Files and Directory Listing
2. cd change directory navigate between
directories
3. pwd Command in Linux (Print Working
Directory)
4. mkdir Command in Linux (Make Directory)
5. rm Command in Linux (Remove Directory)
6. touch Command in Linux (Create/Update
Files)
7. cp Command in Linux (Copy
Files/Directories)
8. mv Command in Linux (Move/Rename Files
& Directories)
9. cat Command in Linux (File Concatenation
& Display)
10. less Command in Linux (File Viewer)
1. List files and Directories
• ls Basic listing command
ls is one of the basic commands of Linux used to show a listing of files and directories. ls has many options that can be used along with the ls command to get output in different ways. We will cover some of the options here with examples.#ls
• ls -l Long format
List the files and directories
in a long list style. It includes file and directory permissions, ownership,
groups, and modified dates, list one file or directory per line, as shown in
the example.
#ls -l
• ls -a
Includes hidden files
-a option is used to show
all files and directories including hidden files and directories as shown in
the example.
#ls -a
• ls –lh
Human Readable Size
-h flag is used to show the file size in human human-readable format in
the output as shown below in the example.
#ls -lh
• ls -la Long list + Hidden
-a option is used to show hidden files and directories. When
it is used with –la, it shows all the hidden files and directories in a long
list format.
#ls -la
• ls -R Recursive List
-R option displays the files and directories in the current
directory then files in the individual directories and sub-directories.
#ls -R
• ls -S
Sort by File Size
-S option displays the files by size from biggest to
smallest in descending order.
#ls -S
• ls -t
Sort by Modified Time
-t option is used to sort file and directory by date and time in order
from the newest to oldest.
#ls
-t
• ls /etc
List Content of Specific Directory
This
command lists the content of a specific directory.
#ls /etc
2. cd
(change Directory)
The cd (Change Directory) command is used to navigate between
folders in Linux. Here’s how it works with examples:
Basic
Syntax
cd
[directory_path]
• Move to a Specific Directory
If you want to move to a
specific directory then use this command.
#cd /var/log
• Change to the /home/seeklinux Directory
Used to change from current
directory to /home/seeklinux using absolute path.
#cd /home/seeklinux/
• go back to Home Directory
This
command is used to go back to the home directory from the current directory.
#cd ~
• Move one Up Directory (parent Folder)
Double
dot is used along with cd command to move one directory up from the current
directory.
#cd..
• Move Up two Directories
Moves
two directory up from your current directory.
#cd
../ ../
• Move to the Previous Directory
Brings
you back to the previous directory where you were working earlier.
#cd
-
• Move to Root Directory
Takes
you to the root (/) directory.
#cd
/
• Navigate Using Relative Path
Moves
into the lib directory using relative path.
#cd lib
3. Pwd Command in Linux (Print Working
Directory)
The pwd (Print Working
Directory) command displays the full path of your current directory. It’s
useful when navigating the Linux file system.
Basic
Syntax
pwd [options]
• Display Current Directory
Show the absolute path of where you are.
#pwd
• Show Physical Path (Avoid Symlinks)
Show
actual physical current working directory by resolving symbolic links (shows
the actual path, not the linked one)
#pwd
–P
• What is the Difference between pwd and $pwd
pwd is a command.
$pwd is environment variable to store the current path.
4. mkdir Command in Linux (Make Directory)
The
mkdir command is used to create directories (folders) in Linux. Here’s how to
use it with practical examples.
Basic Syntax
mkdir
[options] directory_name
• Creates a Single Directory
Creates
a folder named Projects in the current directory.
#mkdir
Projects
• Create Multiple Directories
This
command is used to create multiple directories. Creates three folders: Docs,
Music and Videos.
#mkdir
Docs Music Videos
• Creates a Directory with a Path
Creates
a new folder inside /home/user/Downloads (requires permissions).
#mkdir
/home/seeklinux/test-folder
• Create Nested Directories (Parent + Child)
-p
ensures parent directories (Projects/2024) are created if missing.
Final
path: ./Projects/2025/May/.
#mkdir
-p Projects/2025/May
• Set Permissions While Creating
-m
sets permissions (755 = rwxr-xr-x) while creating directory.
#mkdir -m 755 myprojects
5.
rm Command in Linux (Remove Directory)
The
rm command is used to delete empty directories in Linux. Unlike rm -r, it only
removes folders with no files/subfolders inside.
Basic Syntax
rmdir
[options] directory_name
• Remove a Single Empty Directory
Deletes
the empty folder video (fails if it contains files).
#rmdir
videos
• Remove Multiple Empty Directory
Deletes docs and music (all must be empty).
#rmdir docs music
• Remove Nested Empty Directory
-p
removes parent directories if they become empty.
Deletes May/ → then checks if 2025/ is empty → deletes it → repeats for Projects/.
#rmdir -p Projects/2024/January
• Verbose Mode (Show Actions)
-v prints a confirmation.
#rmdir
-v OldBackup
6.
Touch Command in Linux (Create/Update Files)
Touch command is
primarily used to create new empty files and update timestamps
(access/modification time) of existing files.Basic Syntax
touch
[options] filename
• Create Single File
Creates
file.txt if it doesn't exist. If it exists, updates its timestamp to the
current time.
#touch
file.txt
• Create Multiple Files
Creates three empty files simultaneously.
#touch
file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt
• Create Files with Spaces in Name
Quotes
are necessary for filenames containing spaces.
#touch
"my document.txt" 'another file.txt'
• Set Specific Timestamp
-t
sets timestamp in format: [[CC]YY]MMDDhhmm[.ss]. Example sets to July 05, 2025,
12:30:00.
#touch
-t 202507051230.00 file.txt
• Update Only Access Time
Updates
only the access time (leaves modification time unchanged).
#touch -a file.txt
• Update Only Modification Time
Updates
only the modification time (leaves access time unchanged).
#touch -m
file.txt
7. cp
Command in Linux (Copy Files/Directories)
The cp command copies files and directories in
Linux. It's essential for backups, duplication, and file management.
Basic Syntax
cp [options]
<source> <dest>
• Copy a File to another Location
This command copies a file to the given destination
directory.
#cp file.txt /data
• Copy with a New Name
This command is used to copy a file with a new name.
#cp file1.txt file2.txt
• Copy Multiple Files
This command copies multiple files to a directory.
#cp file.txt file1.txt file2.txt data
• Copy Directory Recursively
This command is used to copy a directory recursively. To
copy recursively, the -r option is used with the cp command.
#cp -r data data2
• Preserve File Attributes
This command is used to preserve the file attributes during
copy. It uses -p option for this purpose.
• Interactive Copy (Prompt Before Overwrite)
We use -i option with the cp command to
make the copy operation interactive. This option gives a warning message and waits
for the user's confirmation before overwriting the file. The user will press y to continue and n to
abort the copy operation.
#cp -i
• Show Progress While Copying
We use the -v option to see the progress of
the copy operation. Normally cp command does not show the progress while the copying
operation.
#cp -v file1.txt file2.txt
• Force Overwrite While Copying
Sometimes
the copy operation failed due to a permission denied error because the destination
file does not have write permissions. In such a situation to override the
permission denied error, a forced copy operation is completed. For this -f
option is used with the cp command to copy a file to the destination.
#cp
-f -v file1.txt file2.txt
• Create Hard Links Instead of Copying a File
This option creates a hard link of the file rather than copying a
file. This plays an important role when a disk space issue is in place. For
this purpose, -l option is used with the cp command.
#cp -i -l file1.txt file6.txt
8.
mv Command
in Linux (Move/Rename Files & Directories)
The mv command is used to move
files/directories to new locations, rename files/directories and overwrite
existing files. This command is very handy in day to day operation. Here we
will see some practical examples of this command.
Basic
Syntax
mv [options] <source>
<destination>
mv [options] <file1> <file2>
<Directory>
• Move a File to another Directory
This command is used to move a file to another directory.
#mv file.txt /test
• Rename a File
A basic operation of the mv command is to rename a file. We
will rename file1.txt to file2.txt.#mv file1.txt file2.txt
• Move Multiple Files
In this example, we move multiple files to a directory.
#mv file1.txt file2.txt file3.txt test
• Move a Directory
In this example, we move a directory to
another directory same as the file is moved to a directory. -v option shows the
progress of the operation.
#mv -v test data
• Move Multiple Directories
The way we moved a directory to another
directory, we can move multiple directories to another directory. -v option is
used to show the progress.
#mv -v test data docs mydata
• Interactive Move (Prompt Before Overwrite)
In interactive mode mv command shows a warning
message and waits for the user's response to complete the operation. For this
purpose, -i option is used with the mv command and y for yes and n for no.
#mv -i -v file1.txt file2.txt
• Force Overwrite (No Prompt)
Sometimes moving a file to another
directory shows a permission denied error and file is not moved to the other
directory. In such a case -f option is used with the move command to move the file
forcefully.
#mv –f –v file1.txt test
• Show Progress (Verbose)
This command shows the progress of the file
during the move operation. For this purpose -v option is used with mv command.
#mv -v file2.txt file3.txt mydata
• Overwrite File Only When Source is Newer
This is used to perform an overwrite when the
source is newer than the destination. For this purpose -u option is used with the
mv command.
#mv -u -v file1.txt file2.txt
9.
cat Command in Linux (File Concatenation &
Display)
The Cat (concatenate) command is one of the most frequently
used commands for displaying file contents, combining multiple files, creating
new files and appending to existing files.
Basic Syntax
cat
[options] file
• Display File Contents
The
basic function of the cat command is to show file contents. For this purpose,
no extra option is used.
#cat
mydata/file2.txt
• Display Content of Multiple Files
cat can show
the content of multiple files by providing the name of files separated by a space.
#cat
file1.txt file2.txt
• Create a New File
cat is also used to create a new file that
is not already exist on Linux.
#cat basic-commands.txt
• Append to Existing File
Cat can
append the content to the existing file. To append content >> symbol is
used.
#cat
>> basic-commands.txt
• Show Line Numbers
If you want to show the line number before
each line of file content then use the -n option.
#cat –n basic-commands.txt
• Combine Files into New File
cat
command is also used to copy the content of multiple files into a new file.
#cat
file1.txt basic-commands.txt > basic-commands1.txt
10. less Command in Linux (File Viewer)
Less is a powerful file viewer that lets
you read files page by page (unlike cat which
dumps the entire file). It's safe for large files and allows
searching/navigation.
Basic syntax
less
[options] file
• View a File
less
is used to view the content of file.
#less
file1.txt
• View Multiple Files
Open
multiple files at the same time without losing the current position of files.
#less
file1.txt basic-commands1.txt
• Search For String
less
allows you to search string in an open file. Use / to find the desire string in
a file.
#less /LINUX
• Monitor Growing Files (Like tail –f)
less
is also used to monitor a large file slowly and in small chunks as large log
file. Use space bar to move file down ward.
#less
/var/log/messages
• Show Line Numbers
less
also used to show line numbers. This is especially helpful in large files.
#less
–N /var/log/messages
• Pipe Output
Pipes
are used with less command to examine the large files in easy and userstandable
way. Especially log files contain lot of data and cannot navigate able. Pipes
help for better readability.
#demsg
| less
• Pattern Search
-p
option is used to open file containing the first item matching specified
pattern. This is case sensitive search.
#
less -pdesktop /var/log/messages
• less Help
This
shows all the related options and switches that can be used with less commands.
It is handy in case you forget any option then go to help and see the correct
option.
#less
–help
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